CompRel2

This semester we focus on three religious approaches to ethics: the spiritual realization that inspires righteous living, inspiration drawn from a prophetic leader, and scholarly applications of scripture to contemporary problems. We shall read an introduction to Sikhism—a religion that combines “Eastern” and “Western” aspects—a biography of the prophet Muhammad, and an evangelical Christian scholar working out a variety of Biblical responses to questions about to violence in defense of justice, divorce and remarriage, homosexuality, anti-Judaism and ethnic conflict, and abortion. There are no prerequisites for this course. Evaluation is based on participation, three quizzes, and an experiential project including various written assignments totaling under 25 pages.

Diversity Element. The course meets Kent State’s diversity requirement. Philosophy specializes in intellectual diversity. Here we affirm our common humanity, to seek to understand our differences (and our particular similarities), and to appreciate the uniqueness of the mystery of each personality.

Texts: (1) Hew McLeod, Sikhs and Sikhism (Oxford, UK: Oxford University Press, 2004) ISBN 13: 978 019 5668926 ISBN 10: 019566828, paper, $29.95.

(2) Martin Lings, Muhammad: His Life Based on the Earliest Sources (Rochester, Vermont: Inner Traditions International, 2004) ISBN 0-89281-170-6, paper, $19.95

(3) Richard B. Hays, The Moral Vision of the New Testament (HarperOne, 1996) ISBN 10: 006063796X; ISBN 13: 978-0060637965 paper, $26.95.

Evaluation is based on participation (10 points): In this class we are pursuing the meanings of the highest values that humanity has attempted to realize. We a community of inquiry, and our interaction has a life of its own; so you are expected to attend regularly, be on time, have the reading done, and be biologically and intellectually ready to participate. More than five absences may affect the grade; if you miss eight classes, how can I pass you? If you miss class, it is your responsibility to get the notes. If you want to ask me, “Did I miss anything important?” think how this sounds to the instructor. If you have to miss several classes in a row, stay in touch. Second, there are three papers, reporting on projects involving your experience as well as the reading (20 points, each). If you feel you have a reason to request an alternative to any of the projects, please speak with the instructor. One more thing about the papers. Writing is so important for your future role; English well used is important for our world, especially when so much communicating is mediated by machines; and it is a vital skill that school sometimes fails to teach. If I don’t fuss about writing, you should see what some folks hand in! So I fuss, and I generally get quite decent writing. Thus papers must be well written to receive a C or above. It’s a good idea to familiarize yourself with the Writing Center’s services: http://dept.kent.edu/english/WritingCent/writngcenter.htm . Third, there are three quizzes (including the final--10 points each), mostly multiple-choice; later quizzes may cover material from earlier quizzes as well as new material.

My office hours are MWF, 12:00-1:00; 12:30-1:30 TR (Bowman 320H) and by appointment (330-672-0276; e-mail: jwattles@kent.edu).

In accordance with University policy, if you have a documented disability and require accommodations to obtain equal access in this course, please contact the instructor at the beginning of the semester or when given an assignment for which an accommodation is required. Students with disabilities must verify their eligibility through the Office of Student Disability Services (SDS) in the Michael Schwartz Student Services Center (672-2972).

The Philosophy Department Grievance Procedure for handling student grievances is in conformity with the Student Academic Complaint Policy and Procedures set down as University Policy 3342-4-16 in the University Policy Register. For information concerning the details of the grievance procedure, please see the Departmental Chairperson.

January 20. Today we’ll introduce examples of an anthropological method, a philosophical method, and a religious method in the study of religion. I will be referring to the website I constructed in 2002 for the Comparative Religious Thought I class: http://fp.dl.kent.edu/jwattles/default.htm . From time to time, I will ask you to download, read, and bring to class selected documents from the Resource category. Today I refer to two or three documents from the section on Methods: An anthropological approach and problems of comparing religions. I may get to the phenomenological approach.

22 Introduction to the first project. Sikhs and Sikhism, chapter 1 (short) and half of chapter 2.

17 PAPER TWO DUE ON RIGHTEOUSNESS. Further discussion of the relations among religions today.

Examples of three kinds of reductionism

1. People's religious life and their so-called interactions with the spirit world are all nothing but psychological phenomena.

2. The truths of psychology can, in principle (even if science does not yet know how to do this completely), be expressed in terms of biology.

3. For the purposes of this inquiry, we will study living systems simply from the perspective of chemistry.

Project One Assignment

Intellectual study flourishes best with integrated with experiential education. The first experiential assignment is to (1) interpret in a way consistent with your own beliefs the concept of an indwelling presence of God—note that this can be done without using any religious ideas, drawing only on biological or social-psychological ideas, (2) take time regularly to bring your attention to focus on, or be more harmonious with, that “wonderfulness within,” and (3), if difficulties arise, consult with the instructor to as to find a suitable adjustment of the project to your own situation. Begin the project immediately. Keep a journal of observations and reflections on your developing experience and on relevant passages in the text. The main keys to success are sincerity and persistence. The project is designed to be growth-promoting, so see the instructor if you are already living in a way that is maximally devoted to what is here assigned.

As the due date for the project report nears (February 10), write a three-page experience report (about 750 words) on the approximately three weeks of experience that you had. In addition, include any stories of particular interest. (35%)

After you have written your experience report, create a second part of your report. Construct a 2 page commentary on the experience report by drawing on selected passages from our text. For each passage, give a brief quote, explain its meaning in its context in the article, and explain how it relates to your experience. (40%)

Finally, present your own response to the part two commentaries in 1-2 pages, adding ideas to build on what you agree with and respectfully giving reasons where you disagree. (15%)

And make sure the English is university caliber (10%--unless the English is very poor [see the syllabus]).

Here is a “rubric” describing levels of achievement correlated with grades on the various parts of the assignment. The percentages indicated above express the default system of grading. Sometimes I give extra points for an outstanding experience report. The three projects amount to 60% of the course grade.

A. The experience report shows that the student has grown (lived progressively on a growth frontier in his or her life). In other words, the student has found an ideal in the assignment in which he or she can grow and shows a genuine effort toward that ideal. (In a majority of cases, growth is gradual, and I understand that three weeks is not a lot of time in a venture like this, so my expectations are moderate. An instructive “failure” is perfectly acceptable as well as a more obvious success. There is NO PRESSURE to produce any great anything. The challenge here is to rise above any sense of academic pressure so that you can move forward in sincerity.) The experience is described in a way that sets up the commentary to follow; the details provided are relevant to the discussion in the following parts of the paper.

B. The report indicates some sincere effort in the direction of the project, but the report indicates an experience less sustained, less wholehearted, and written with more unnecessary or chatty detail. The learning was average.

C. The project experience seems to have been brief and half-hearted and shows little discovery. The experience is described with unnecessary, chatty details, and does not sustain a focus helpful to the dialogue to be established in the paper.

D. The report indicates a severe misunderstanding of the assignment. The student complains of problems that should have been discussed earlier with the instructor.

F. The report gives little or no evidence of effort along the lines of the assignment.

A. A full two pages of commentary show an imaginative ability to construct a commentary from the author’s perspective. The quotes chosen show an original and close study of the readings, a careful and accurate interpretation of meaning, and an insightful connection with the experience report.

B. The selection of quotations depends mostly on what was discussed in class, and the interpretation shows some personal freshness. The relevance of the quotes to the experience report is fairly clear.

C. The commentary is too brief, interpretations simply follow what was presented in class, and the relevance to the experience report is vague. There are some significant misinterpretations of the text.

F. The paper gives little or no evidence of effort along the lines of the assignment.

A. In a full two pages of reflection, giving reasons, articulating concepts, the student shows appreciation of truths contained in the Part II commentary, and then goes on to embellish and illumine those truths by adding something positive. The student expresses criticism with respect and gives reasons for disagreeing.

B. There is a balance of appreciation and critique and some thoughtful development of the main points.

C. The student expresses a few likes and/or dislikes without developing concepts and reasons thoughtfully.

D. The student expresses criticism in a way that is dismissive of the tradition or shows hostility.

F. Brief remarks showing almost no reflection are tacked on to the end of the paper.

Project Two Assignment: Living in Goodness and/or Righteousness

The second experiential project is to (1) continue with your Project One venture into spirituality (or the experience of flowing music), and (2) to begin to add to that a fresh dimension of living by participating in goodness or righteousness. Please find an aspect of goodness or righteousness that is something of a growth frontier for you that you are willing to share at least with the instructor. Take care not to force your progress, especially if you are presently processing something difficult. As we read the biography of Muhammad, we will be looking particularly for examples of righteous character and righteous action (but there is no pressure to agree that any particular aspect of character or action does in fact express the ideal). In a certain way, the experience of this project transpires the context of imaging oneself in dialogue with of Muhammad.

Keep a journal of observations and reflections on your developing experience and on relevant passages in the text. The main keys to success are wholeheartedness and persistence.

As the due date for the project report nears (March 17), write a three-page experience report (about 750 words) on the weeks of experience that you had. In addition, include any stories of particular interest.

After you have written your experience report, create a second part of your report. Construct a 2 page commentary on the experience report by drawing on selected passages from our text. For each passage, give a brief quote, explain its meaning in its context in the article, and explain how it relates to your experience.

Finally, present a two-page response of your own to the part two commentary, adding ideas to build on what you agree with and respectfully giving reasons where you disagree.

Last project for the class

Our last class project is to live the truth beautifully in dialogue with one another and with our last text, The Moral Vision of the New Testament: A Contemporary Introduction to New Testament Ethics, by Richard B. Hays.

The living is the action dimension, doing governed by the value of goodness. The truth is what we increasingly realize, in part as a more direct or indirect, and more conscious or unconscious result of our practices of meditation, prayer, and worship. We are building on the truth realized in the first part of the term, continuing in the beauty realized in the second part of the term, and sprinting without anxiety into the meadow-and-mountains of participation in goodness.

Part I experience report (at least two pages). First, give an normal account of your experience as you have in the past, taking care to describe as carefully as you can one salient experience from the project period. The salient experience need not be dramatic or particularly “spiritual.”

Next, for your Part II commentary (at least two pages), take a section of a chapter from the text that seems relevant to the experience you have chosen to describe. Analyze the import of this section for interpreting the experience that you have chosen as a focus. You may also consider one or more of Hays's themes, community, cross, new creation (with the concepts adjusted to what you can personally affirm).

Finally, for your Part III response (at least one page), present your own reflections on Parts I and II from your own perspective as enriched by all that we have done together in this class (at least one page).

Ideas of truth and hope for finite truth-seekers

What is truth? There is very much to say, but here just a few basics will be mentioned. The initial critical review is humbling, since each idea of truth that promises a criterion is seen to have limits. Nevertheless, as we shall see thereafter, critique may be embraced from the perspective of seeing ourselves not as isolated from truth but as participating in truth.

At first, one may distinguish truth from fact. Persons can agree that something is a fact and still ask about the truth of that fact. Some facts, such as “Now is night” have no scientific status and are so transient that they do not survive being written down.[i] In some cases, a fact is controversial but may be established by something approximating a scientific process. This possibility gives rise to the hybrid idea of truth as factual correctness, or, more broadly, the correspondence of a statement (or proposition or judgment) with reality. Is it stormy or calm outside now? Is there just one door in this room or more than one? Have a look. Of course, checking can be hard or impossible. Historically speaking, did the conversation between Krishna and Arjuna told in the Bhagavad-Gita actually occur? Which version of the Ten Commandments did Moses actually give the Israelites? How accurate are the New Testament records of what Jesus said and did? Did an angel really tell Mohammad what to write? To some extent we can check, or try to check, or imagine a conceivable check. Considered in its generality, this line of thought leads to the correspondence theory of truth, whose characteristic affirmation is that reality is the criterion in terms of which any statement is ultimately true or false. Truth, in other words, is not just a name for the best we can do as diligent inquirers, virtuous epistemic agents; other theories of truth arguably cannot help presupposing a realist, or correspondence theory.[ii] The limitations of the correspondence theory of truth, in addition to the difficulties just noted, include that sometimes language is used symbolically, not literally, so it is wrong to interpret the truth intended on the level of fact—e.g., “You must be reborn.” Or truth comes in a story which is not meant to be taken as a report. A more intractable problem is that we cannot peer outside the structural features of our human conceptual frame for thinking to see whether they correspond with the real, since these features come with us, whatever checking we might think to try.

A second idea is truth as coherence. Are the ideas of this text consistent with each other? Is this statement or action consistent with the ideals of truth and goodness that the speaker is supposed to represent? Coherence is surely important to us as knowers and part of an adequate account of truth. We often accept new ideas simply because of their fit with our beliefs, desires, and experience. The limits of the coherence theory are that our ideas may cohere nicely, yet be in error, if our thinking is one-sided or built on a false premise. Moreover, paradox, seeming inconsistency, is sometimes the most helpful way to express deeper truth. “The greatest among you will be your servant.”[iii] Paradox forces people to think to find the distinction to resolve the inconsistency.

A third idea is that truth is the manifestation of the real. Inquiry prepares but does not cause it; the human mind receives it interpretively it but does not fabricate it. Any illuminating role of divine mind or indwelling spirit is so silent, that a branch of phenomenological tradition can speak, with Heidegger, as though the thing itself were the agent of its appearing, “showing itself from itself.” But manifestation, direct or indirect, sudden or gradual, is always more or less partial.[iv]

Fourth, continuing the third idea, truth manifests in such a way that it is intuitively recognized. There is a flavor or spirit of truth to it. It strikes the hearer as insightful, perhaps as authoritative, resonant with the deepest within oneself. Limitations to the idea of a spiritual intuition of truth are that intuitions differ and may be confused by dogma or passion. Intuition becomes more reliable as the person grows.

Fourth, still continuing the previous thread, truth as revelation implies a gift from a superhuman source. There are varieties of alleged revelation: an inner realization, a vision, an inspired saying or speech, a person, a life, a book, in whole or in part. Questions to ask about revelation are several. Does the being to whom the revelation is attributed really exist? Did the revelatory event really occur? To what extent did the subject's physical condition and cultural background shape the reception of the gift? How fully did the recipient communicate it? Has the original record been altered? Problems in appealing to revealed truth are that there are many claims to revelation that are inconsistent with each other, so we still need scientific, philosophic, and spiritual responsibility in discerning truth. Acceptance of revelation makes it easier to be intolerant and stop growing. Finally, revelation must make use of the language and ways of thinking appropriate to the receiving culture. There has already been an adjustment of divine truth to the evolutionary human situation. Furthermore, whoever would interpret the implications of revelation given in one circumstance for the needs of another circumstance needs human reason to do so.

Finally, there is truth as lived. How else could we truly comprehend it? Living the truth carries its own power and authority. The limitations to this idea are that a life may be great partly in spite of what the person believes. Moreover, seemingly inspired persons can clash. In addition, living true to the best we know today enables us to know more tomorrow, which implies that today’s statements of truth may not be final. Since truth itself is living it cannot be fixed. Because none of these concepts of truth accesses a presuppositionless or static absolute, a certain kind of striving for truth cannot be satisfied. But the scientific and philosophic commitments sketched earlier find their orientation and complement in the life of truth in which we humanly participate by faith. The limitations of concepts and theories of truth do not imply that belief itself need be tentative or hypothetical, for persistent faith yields radiant assurance in the progressive experience of God.

These results show both a spectrum of ideas to be synthesized and also limits in our ability to certify, in a general way, our grasp of truth. We remain in process, but not mired in mere flux. An image of the integration of the many dimensions of truth comes from story by the classical Taoist philosopher Chuang-Tzu.

Cook Ting was cutting up an ox for Lord Wen-hui. At every touch of his hand, every heave of his shoulder, every move of his feet, every thrust of his knee, zip! zoop! He slithered the knife along with a zing, and all was in perfect rhythm, as though he were performing the dance of the Mulberry Grove or keeping time to the Ching-shou music.

“Ah, this is marvelous! said Lord Wen-hui. “Imagine skill reaching such heights!’

Cook Ting laid down his knife and replied, “What I care about is the Way, which goes beyond skill. When I first began cutting up oxen, all I could see was the ox itself. After three years I no longer saw the whole ox. And now—now I go at it by spirit and don’t look with my eyes. Perception and understanding have come to a stop and spirit moves where it wants. I go along with the natural makeup, strike in the big hollows, guide the knife through the big openings, and follow things as they are. So I never touch the smallest ligament or tendon, much less a main joint.

“A good cook changes his knife once a year, because he cuts. A mediocre cook changes his knife once a month—because he hacks. I’ve had this knife of mind for nineteen years and I’ve cut up thousands of oxen with it, and yet the blade is as good as though it had just come from the grindstone. There are spaces between the joints, and the blade of the knife has really no thickness. If you insert what has no thickness into such spaces, then there’s plenty of room, more than enough for the blade to play about in. That’s why after nineteen years the blade of my knife is still as good as when it first came from the grindstone.

“However, whenever I come to a complicated place, I size up the difficulties, tell myself to watch out and be careful, keep my eyes on what I’m doing, work very slowly, and move the knife with the greatest subtlety, until, flop! the whole thing comes apart like a clod of earth crumbling to the ground. I would stand there holding the knife and look all around me, completely satisfied and reluctant to move on, and then I wipe off the knife and put it away.”

“Excellent! Said Lord Wen-hui. “I have heard the words of Cook Ting and learned how to care for life!”[v]

This story has surreal touches (the knife with no thickness) indicating that it is not to be taken literally; rather the story is about how to “care for life.” The stages of learning symbolize painstaking devotion to fact which precedes the emergence of spiritual intuition. Note that there is no romantic idealism about attaining a level of sagehood where difficulties do not arise and the scaffolding of carefulness can be cast off. Rather, difficulties do arise, and they occasion a return to two earlier stages (scientific and philosophic care, here). Finally, the down-shift to earlier stages does not signal an abandonment of spiritual engagement. Rather, re-engagement with the more elementary stages is a focusing of attention which is precisely a continuation and extension of spiritual attunement. Spirituality rises to new heights at such moments. It is for these reasons that the story can be taken as symbolizing an integrated engagement with truth.

[i] A readable and eloquent exposition of this observation is given in the first chapter of G. W. F. Hegel’s Phenomenology of Spirit, trans. A. V. Miller (New York: Oxford University Press, 1977).

[ii] William P. Alston, A Realist Conception of Truth (Ithaca: Cornell University Press, 19960.

[iii] Matthew 23.12.

[iv] This concept of truth is featured in some of the contributors to Daniel Guerrière, ed., Phenomenology of the Truth Proper to Religion (Albany: State University of New York Press, 1990), notably by Louis Dupré and Guerrière.

[v] Chuang Tzu, Basic Writings, trans. Burton Watson (New York: Columbia University Press, 1964), Section 3, “The Secret of Caring for Life,” pp. 46-47.

Martin Lings, Muhammad: His life based on the earliest sources

I. The House of God. Abraham fathered Ishmael by his servant Hagar and Isaac by his wife, Sarah. Hagar and Ishmael were expelled from the household by the insistence of Sarah, and they wandered to Becca (which came to be called Mecca), where they found a well (“Zamzam”) and the Kaba stone which had ritual importance.

II. A Great Loss. After the time of Abraham, there was a loss of monotheism, and as centuries passed, population increased, leading to emigration by people who absorbed idolatry from others, leading, in turn, to the weakening of their spiritual connection. Mecca and the Kaba are taken over by others.

III. Quraysh of the Hollow [central territory in this drama]. An excellent patriarach endows his weakest son (Adu Manaf), one of whose sons is excellent (Hashim) and fathers, with a woman in Yathrib, an outstanding son, Abd al- Muttalib, who gives food and water to the pilgrims who come annually to Mecca.

IV. The Recovery of a Loss. There is a legend of the discovery by Muttalib of treasure and water (Zamzam) for the pilgrims next to the Kaba.

V. The Vow to Sacrifice a Son. Muttalib vowed to sacrifice a favorite son (Abd Allah), whose mother, Fatima, mobilized her Quraysh kin in support of the youth. Muhammad followed the advice of a wise woman who designed a substitute: sacrifice camels instead of the youth.

VI. The Need for a Prophet. There was anticipation of a coming prophet among Jews, Christians, and some others (e.g., Waraqah, a Christian whose sister was Qutaylah). Muttalib arranges marriage for his outstanding son, Abd Allah, who, radiant, is sought as an immediate marriage partner on his wedding day (in 569) by Qutaylah (and loses his radiance promptly on account of non-cooperation).

VII. The Year of the Elephant (569). A Christian potentate from Abyssinia aims to rival Mecca and destroy the Kaba, but is defeated by an Obedient Elephant in 569 and by the miracle of the birds. Abd Allah dies of illness, but his wife Amina becomes aware of the miracle of the son she carries, so Muhammad is born (grandson of al-Muttalib).

VIII. The Desert. For character and enculturation, it was common for Meccans to send sons to noble nomads for their early childhood. In Muhammad’s case as a member of a poor family, there was a miraculous filling of breasts with mild, and then a miraculous visitation cleansing his heart.

IX. Two Berreavements. Muhammad loses his mother at age six and his grandfather at age eight. When he was seven, he grew up very familiar with the Kaba and was taken to the assembly by his grandfather, where his opinion was sought by the aged. He comes under the care of his uncle Abu Talib and Fatima.

X. Bahira the Monk . . . at Bostra identifies Muhammad as an outstanding prophet at age nine or twelve.

XI. A Pact of Chivalry. There was a need to find a way to establish justice so as to improve on the desert custom of retaliation. The way that was found was a pact of chivalry: the Quraysh (the leading tribe in the area) committed to the united defense of the oppressed, no matter whom. Muhammad and Abu Bakr were present at the making of the pact. Muhammad was trained for battle, particularly in archery.

XII. Questions of Marriage. Muhammad’s physical appearance and character are described (pp. 34 and 35); more signs of prophethood are in evidence. And marriage to Khadijah is the question (he was around 25, she around 40).

XIII. The Household (of Muhammad and Khadijah) is a place of strong bonds with extended family and non-kin. Muhammad frees and then adopts as a son a slave who turned down the chance to return to his family.

XIV. The Rebuilding of the Ka’bah . . . takes place amid frightening and encouraging signs and miracles. The Quraysh are united in this project by Muhammad in the effort to re-place the stone.

XV. The First Revelations: events, circumstances, phenomena, doubts, and reassurances.

XVI. Worship: Gabriel teaches the liturgy. Early converts and core teachings are explained, as well as the meaning of the most repeated phrase used in the Qur’an to describe God—“the merciful” expressed in the intensive and even more intensive form of the word: ar Rahman, ar Rahim. The whole phrase goes thus: In the name of God the [very merciful, the extremely merciful]. Bismallah, ar-Rahman, ar-Rahim (often translated as “the merciful, the compassionate,” or something similar).

XVII. “Warn your family.” Muhammad gathers his key relatives, though his uncles are reluctant. Ali volunteers—and is accepted as Muhammad’s successor.

XVIII. Quraysh take action. Those who are coming to Mecca for the annual ritual and festival time are warned by Quraysh against Muhammad, who is protected by his uncle Abu Talib; but some of the pilgrims nevertheless convert to Islam. Muhammad’s patience and gentleness is manifest.

XIX. Aws and Khazraj. There was a conflict in Yathrib (later to be named Medina) between the Arabs and the Jews. The Jews generally liked Muhammad’s message but not Muhammad, and the Arabs generally liked Muhammad but not his message. Aws sought help from Quraysh, and Mohammad proposed religion instead. On the whole, his proposal was turned down.

XX. Abu Jahl and Hamzah. The number of converts goes up, and resistance goes up. Abu Jahl abusively insults Muhammad. Hamzah, learning of the abuse, retaliates.

XXI. Quraysh make offers and demands. A man who goes to bargain with Muhammad (to stop) is converted by the power of the beauty of the revelations. Muhammad’s great forbearance is shown in “tempting” encounters; and he is sad at the growing rift.

XXII. Leaders of Quraysh . . . reject Muhammad on account of a clash of ideals as to what constitutes greatness (and whether wealth is part of what is needed for a person to be great).

XXIII. Wonderment and hope. Core teachings are set forth, along with the separation of believers and disbelievers.

XXV. The hour. The emerging Qur’an announces and brings a foretaste of the Day of Judgment, clarifying and sharpening the difference between good and evil.

XXVI. Three questions . . . are proposed by the Yathrib rabbis to enable the Quraysh to discern regarding Muhammad. Muhammad learns not to promise without the qualification, “Enshallah”—if God wills. Early persecutions are resisted, and some are outwardly defeated. The first emigration—to Abyssinia—occurs.

XXVII. Abyssinia . . . is ruled by the Christian leader, the Negus, who resists the Meccan efforts to get him to make the emigrants return to Mecca. The Negus meets with the emigrants, and saw their excellence. The key issue surfaces: Is Jesus the Son of God or a slave of God? The Negus tacitly converts to Islam upon hearing Sura 19, Mary; but he conceals his conversion in order to preserve the peace for the Muslims there.

XXVIII. Umar, a murderous enemy of Muhammad, powerful in emotion, and bodily action, converts.

XXIX. The ban and its annulment. There is a short-lived ban on marriage or any economic dealings with an entire clan on account of the many Muslims among them. This chapter features definitions of the heart and of “Muhammad”; and a miracle helps prompt the annulment.

XXX. Paradise and eternity. An outstanding poet, one of whose verses seems to contradict Islam is challenged by a Muslim and upheld by Muhammad. The first paradise was taken away. There are two paradises: the divine embrace, and Paradise itself (the place where God resides in a cosmographic sense). In the end, all are saved.

XXXI. The Year of Sadness. Khadijah dies, and then Muhammad’s uncle, Abu Talib dies, leaving Muhammad without the necessary protection. He seeks what he needs in vain at first, and then receives it. He refuses to gain peace by agreeing to cease attacking idolaters.

XXXII. “The Light of Thy Countenance.” Here is the account of the night journey from Mecca to Jerusalem, and up through the seven heavens, and back.

XXXIII. After the Year of Sadness. Muhammad takes two wives, including the betrothed, six-year-old A’ishah, after cautious interpretation of a revelatory (?) dream to do so. Abu Bakr’s open mosque is so attractive as to lose him his protection. Muhammad announces the place to which they will emigrate after six from Yathrib embrace Islam (to compete with the Jews).

XXXIV. Yathrib Responsive. Initial converts, then on their pilgrimage, pledge to defend Muhammad by war against any and all—and are promised Paradise for their fidelity.

XXXV. Many Emigrations. There are emigrations and fights against emigrations, including forced renunciation of Islam, which led to despair until Gabriel brought a revelation of mercy for them.

XXXVI. A Conspiracy . . . against the Muslims is thwarted by Gabriel’s warning and by a counter-conspiracy in which Ali—who was promised divine protection—agreed to sleep in Muhamad’s bed (and fulfill economic obligations) as Muhammad and Abu Bakh were (divinely) hidden.

XXXVII. The Hijrah. This is the escape from Mecca, required to preserve his life from the threats of his enemies, as he emigrates to Yathrib (Medina) where he has been invited to be the civil administrator and prophet.

XXXVIII. The Entry into Medina . . . is divinely protected and thronged with rejoicing and invitations allowing those who are (divinely) guided camel to “choose” where Muhammad would take up residence.

XXXIX. Harmony and Discord . . . in Medina between old enemies and Muhammad’s sometime successes.

XL. The New Household. Muhammad marries nine-year-old playful A’ishah. A prayer for healing is answered.

XLI. The Threshold of War. It is considered that prior persecution establishes a state of war; a raid also has economic motivation, an revelation confirms the first one. Revelation orients prayer toward Mecca.

XLII. The March to Badr. Both groups prepare for battle. After debate, the Meccans resolve.

XLIII. The Battle of Badr. Fignting alongside angels, motivated not to slay most captives, sad over some of the slain, booty is distributed equally, not as private property. Muhammad speaks to the dead, assuraing a grieving mother that Paradise is the reward of intention (as distinguished from success). There are many gardens in Paradise. (The first paragraph shows Muhammad’s remarkable fairness.)

XLIV. The Return of the Vanquished back to Mecca. One Meccan rejoiced and was fatally beaten. Vengeance was vowed. Plans formed to unite other tribes against Muhammad’s. Ransom was forbidden, but nevertheless began.

XLV. The Captives . . . held in the theocracy of Medina; there were stories of deceit, conversions, tactics, and the story behind the Muslim greeting on Paradise: “Peace.” A story of Muhammad’s Solomonic judgment.

XLVI. Bani Quaynuqa, a Jewish tribe that opposed Muhammad. Revelations against the majority of Jews are received; Muhammad is reluctant to go to war; revelation commands making an example of the vanquished.

XLVII. Deaths and Marriages. This chapter discusses the legitimacy of accepting God’s blessings in marriage (including polygamy). It also mentions that it may be as honorable to die a natural death as to die the death of a martyr. There is to be no suppression of sincere emotion in mourning.

XLVIII. The People of the Bench . . . are the homeless and hungry: witness the efforts of Muhammad and especially of Ali and Fatima to feed them.

XLIX. Desultory Warfare . . . as the prophet retaliates against a poet wrote against him and his teachings.

L. Preparations for Battle. Medina captures a rich caravan. A Meccan force of 3000 consume the crops north of Medina. Some, inspired by dreams confirming reports of Paradise, seek martyrdom. Muhammad changes his mind about staying in Medinah until the enemy should attack, and sets forth with an army of 1000.

LI. The March to Uhud. As Muhammad’s army, outnumbered, seeking an advantageous place of surprise, 300 desert, leaving 7000. They prepare for great slaughter in uncertainty (see the important remark on exertion).

LII. The Battle of Uhud. After initial success, Muhammad is defeated and is thought to have been killed.

LIII. Revenge. Quraysh mutilate the bodies of those they had killed. The enemies agree to meet again next year at Badr.

LIV. The Burial of the Martyrs. Verses of assurance are given and verses about steadfastness. Note the prayer that concludes the chapter.

LV. After Uhud, Muslims, wounded, pursue, lighting fires to intimidate as of an overwhelming multitude, and the Meccans quickly retreat home. Revelation assures them that they will overcome, though civilizations (e.g., that of Arabia at that time), would not endure.

LVI. Victims of Revenge. Muslim victims died heroically, full of faith and valor.

LVII. Bani Nadir . . . asked for help, conspire to kill Muhammad, who declares his pact with them to be voided, leads a siege, allows them to exit with goods piled on camels, and takes the rest for the poor emigrants.

LVIII. Peace and War. Muhammad’s new wife, Zaynab, dies. Muslims show up at Badr. In God-given unity they swiftly attack far to the north. Muhammad takes another wife after the experience of passion followed by a revelation. Stories highlight Muhammad’s mery, helpfulness, devotion and organization, balance, wisdom in refusal to exalt himself over other prophets. He develops habits to protect him from being overmuch put upon.

LIX. The Trench. Working to help prepare Medina defensively, Muhammad has visions of his eventual predominance over distant regions.

LX. The Siege was a protracted and severe test, also since Jews within (Bani Qurayzah) renounced their pact. Muhammad offered a reward if the enemy would withdraw, but is persuaded otherwise by enthusiasts.

LXI. Bani Qurayzah. Following a revelation, Muslims besiege the fortresses in the south of Medina of the non-cooperating Jews, some of whom convert. Muhammad calls for someone sympathetic to pronounce a judgment—and Sa’d decides that all the men shall die, the women and children made captive, and the property divided—which Muhammad pronounces to be heavenly justice. After beheadings, Muhammad takes a beautiful slave who enters Islam then turns down his offer of freedom and marriage as being easier for both of them.

LXII. After the Siege (1) Sa’d (who passed harsh judgment on the Jews), dies, and Muhammad sees angels supporting his coffin and his acceptance by God; (2) Abu Labagah is Forgiven (converted and penitent); (3) A Quraysh caravan is captured but the husband of Zaynab escapes, whom she protects: Muhammad says, “The meanest Muslim can grant protection which shall be binding on all Muslims.” He refuses to appropriate the property which is not his which nevertheless is returned to him, as a poor beginning to his Islam.

LXIII. The Hypocrites. Their pugnacity is defused without retaliation by Muhammad.

LXIV. The Necklace. Aishah’s necklace falls off. The group stop for a search, grumbling, thirsty, with no water for ablution, until a revelation arrives that it is OK to substitute clean earth for water. It happens again, but she falls asleep and is alone until found by a companion. Spoils are divided, and Muhammad takes another beautiful wife, who wins praise as doing good for her people.

LXV. The Lie alleging immoral relations between Aishah and the companion who found her alone spread as gossip does. Muhammad’s typical experience in receiving revelation is described. Aishah is found innocent and revelations about how to punish adultery and slander are given.

LXVI. The Dilemma of Quraysh. Muhammad, having dreamt of entering the Ka’ba, sets off for the pilgrimage unarmed. The Quraysh are put into a dilemma: their hospitality to pilgrims is essential to their honor, but to admit Muhammad and his companions would be to exacerbate their defeat. Muhammad offers to make a concession, but the resolution of the matter is delayed.

LXVII. “A Clear Victory.” The pact between Muhammad and his companions (as pilgrims) and the Meccans stipulated that these pilgrims would not enter Mecca this year but wait until the following year. This was a compromise said to proceed from divine guidance as there came over Muhammad “a state which was comparable to that of receiving a Revelation but which left him in full possession of his faculties”: “The Holy Spirit hath descended upon the Messenger . . . .” and the “Spirit of Peace” was sent down upon them.

LXVIII. After Hudaybiyah (the place where the treaty with the Meccans was signed). (1) Abu Basir enters Islam in Mecca, escapes to Medina, is returned, fights for his freedom and wins, to lead a Meccan-caravan-raiding band of seventy. (2) After Muhammad’s [intuition] of Muslim extension in various directions, he sends letters to various top leaders. He takes another wife. (3) Magic is practiced against Muhammad, which is effective for a time, then cured through the last two suras of the Qur’an. The malefactor confesses and Muhammad takes no action against him.

LXIX. Khaybar is a Jewish city which, disunited and betrayed, falls as Muhammad eliminates this Jewish center of conspiracy to the north after several days; then other Jewish towns yield. None would be harmed as long as they exiled themselves and leave behind all their wealth. A woman tries to poison Muhammad; he detects and pardons her. Revelation makes it clear that God loves united fighters.

LXX. “Whom Lovest Thou Most?” Aishah is Muhammad’s favorite wife, and the others are jealous. Muhammad variously answers the question of which one of his wives was his favorite, but no answer pointed in the direction of any other wife.

LXXI. After Khaybar, wives compete for spoils, and are harsh toward Muhammad’s concubine, but they are rebuked by a revelation and set aside for a month—but, to their relief, not divorced by Muhammad, who offers them each the choice of lower goods or himself and reward in the next life. Each one accepts him.

LXXII. The Lesser Pilgrimage and its Aftermath. From Medina to Mecca, the pilgrimage takes three days; additional converts are mercifully received. One of them converts after the Abyssinian Negus had defended Muhammad. Muhammad takes another wife.

LXXIII. Deaths and the Promise of a Birth. Aiming to extend their conquests into Syria, repelled by enemy but reinforced by Romans, they return to Medina. When they return a second time, they are largely unopposed. Motives multiply to align with Muhammad, especially the spiritual effect of the assurances of the Qur’an. The story continues about Muhammad’s concubine.

LXXIV. A Breach of the Armistice is commited by Quraysh. Muhammad determines to retaliate, though keeps his target secret as long as possible. Chief Abu Sufyan converts. A process emerges: (1) consult; (2) resolve; (3) Trust (Sura III.159).

LXXV. The Conquest of Mecca is almost completely peaceful. Muhammad shows generously merciful openness to all. Most convert, and idols are destroyed.

LXXVI. The Battle [against Quraysh] of Hunayn[where angels assist] and the [unsuccessful] Siege of Ta’if where Muhammad prays for them without contempt.

LXXVII. Reconciliations. One of the purposes of alms according the Qur’an is to facilitate reconciliation. A generous gift facilitates wholeheartedness in Islam. See Muhammad’s reply to those who are unsatisfied with su ch unequal distributions.

LXVIII. After the Victory, a poet converts, among others. A son is born to Muhammad and is named Ibrahim by Gabriel. In response to a prayer for the departed Negus comes a miracle.

LXVIX. Tabuk. Muhammad leads his largest force against the Byzantines on a false impression of their coming aggression. They halt at Tabuk, and Muhammad with most of the army return. A miracle of water occurs.

LXXX. After Tabuk. Islam or the sword—to idolators. Others are forced to pay for protection. Muhammad’s daughter and son die, occasioning great grief. Muhammad accepts a hypocritical apology with a reminder of God’s omniscience. There is a dispute regarding Jesus. Note the teachings about the philosophy of living and about perfection.

LXXXI. The Degrees or levels of spirituality are clarified on account of decline, and the greater jihad is emphasized.

LXXXII. The Future. Decline and reversal are predicted, along with the Anti-Christ and the return of Jesus. Core teachings are summarized: the six beliefs and the six-fold submission. Excellence means to worship without seeing the God who is invisible and who sees you.

LXXXIII. The Farewell Pilgrimage . Competitors are denounced and a punishing campaign is mobilized to settle an old score.

LXXXV. The Succession and the Burial. Abu Bakr, the successor, recites this verse: “Muhammad is but a messenger, and messengers have passed away before him. If he die or be slain, will you then turn upon your heels? Who turns upon his heels will thereby do no hurt to God; and God will reward the thankful.”

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Comparative Religious Thought II

Examples of three kinds of reductionism

Project One Assignment

Project Two Assignment: Living in Goodness and/or Righteousness

Last project for the class

Ideas of truth and hope for finite truth-seekers

Martin Lings, Muhammad: His life based on the earliest sources